Home » 国际竞赛 » 数学国际竞赛 » AMC美国数学竞赛 » Details

2010 USAMO Problems真题及答案

Category: AMC美国数学竞赛, 国际竞赛 Date: 2019年8月13日下午12:31

2010 USAMO Problems真题及答案

完整版真题免费下载

+答案解析请参考文末

Day 1

Problem 1

Let? $AXYZB$ ?be a convex pentagon inscribed in a semicircle of diameter? $AB$ . Denote by? $P$ ,? $Q$ ,? $R$ ,? $S$ ?the feet of the perpendiculars from? $Y$ onto lines? $AX$ ,? $BX$ ,? $AZ$ ,? $BZ$ , respectively. Prove that the acute angle formed by lines? $PQ$ ?and? $RS$ ?is half the size of? $angle XOZ$ , where? $O$ ?is the midpoint of segment? $AB$ .

Problem 2

There are? $n$ ?students standing in a circle, one behind the other. The students have heights? $h_1<h_2<dots <h_n$ . If a student with height? $h_k$ ?is standing directly behind a student with height? $h_{k-2}$ ?or less, the two students are permitted to switch places. Prove that it is not possible to make more than? $binom{n}{3}$ ?such switches before reaching a position in which no further switches are possible.

Problem 3

The 2010 positive numbers? $a_1, a_2, ldots , a_{2010}$ ?satisfy the inequality? $a_ia_jleq i+j$ ?for all distinct indices? $i, j$ . Determine, with proof, the largest possible value of the product? $a_1a_2ldots a_{2010}$ .

Day 2

Problem 4

Let? $ABC$ ?be a triangle with? $angle A=90^{circ}$ . Points? $D$ ?and? $E$ ?lie on sides? $AC$ ?and? $AB$ , respectively, such that? $angle ABD=angle DBC$ ?and? $angle ACE=angle ECB$ . Segments? $BD$ ?and? $CE$ ?meet at? $I$ . Determine whether or not it is possible for segments? $AB$ ,? $AC$ ,? $BI$ ,? $ID$ ,? $CI$ ,? $IE$ ?to all have integer side lengths.

Problem 5

Let? $q = dfrac{3p-5}{2}$ ?where? $p$ ?is an odd prime, and let

$[S_q = frac{1}{2cdot 3 cdot 4} + frac{1}{5cdot 6 cdot 7} + cdots + frac{1}{qcdot (q+1) cdot (q+2)}.]$ Prove that if? $dfrac{1}{p}-2S_q = dfrac{m}{n}$ ?for relatively prime integers? $m$ ?and? $n$ , then? $m-n$ ?is divisible by? $p$ .

Problem 6

A blackboard contains 68 pairs of nonzero integers. Suppose that for each positive integer? $k$ ?at most one of the pairs? $(k, k)$ ?and? $(-k, -k)$ ?is written on the blackboard. A student erases some of the 136 integers, subject to the condition that no two erased integers may add to 0. The student then scores one point for each of the 68 pairs in which at least one integer is erased. Determine, with proof, the largest number? $N$ ?of points that the student can guarantee to score regardless of which 68 pairs have been written on the board.

2010USAMO真题参考答案及详解

Problem 1

Solution 1

Let? $alpha = angle BAZ$ ,? $beta = angle ABX$ . Since? $XY$ ?is a chord of the circle with diameter? $AB$ ,? $angle XAY = angle XBY = gamma$ . From the chord? $YZ$ , we conclude? $angle YAZ = angle YBZ = delta$ .

$[asy] import olympiad; // Scale unitsize(1inch); real r = 1.75; // Semi-circle: centre O, radius r, diameter A--B. pair O = (0,0); dot(O); label("$O$", O, plain.S); pair A = r * plain.W; dot(A); label("$A$", A, unit(A)); pair B = r * plain.E; dot(B); label("$B$", B, unit(B)); draw(arc(O, r, 0, 180)--cycle); // points X, Y, Z real alpha = 22.5; real beta = 15; real delta = 30; pair X = r * dir(180 - 2*beta); dot(X); label("$X$", X, unit(X)); pair Y = r * dir(2*(alpha + delta)); dot(Y); label("$Y$", Y, unit(Y)); pair Z = r * dir(2*alpha); dot(Z); label("$Z$", Z, unit(Z)); // Feet of perpendiculars from Y pair P = foot(Y, A, X); dot(P); label("$P$", P, unit(P-Y)); dot(P); pair Q = foot(Y, B, X); dot(P); label("$Q$", Q, unit(A-Q)); dot(Q); pair R = foot(Y, B, Z); dot(R); label("$S$", R, unit(R-Y)); dot(R); pair S = foot(Y, A, Z); dot(S); label("$R$", S, unit(B-S)); dot(S); pair T = foot(Y, A, B); dot(T); label("$T$", T, unit(T-Y)); dot(T); // Segments draw(B--X); draw(B--Y); draw(B--R); draw(A--Z); draw(A--Y); draw(A--P); draw(Y--P); draw(Y--Q); draw(Y--R); draw(Y--S); draw(R--T); draw(P--T); // Right angles draw(rightanglemark(A, X, B, 3)); draw(rightanglemark(A, Y, B, 3)); draw(rightanglemark(A, Z, B, 3)); draw(rightanglemark(A, P, Y, 3)); draw(rightanglemark(Y, R, B, 3)); draw(rightanglemark(Y, S, A, 3)); draw(rightanglemark(B, Q, Y, 3)); // Acute angles import markers; void langle(pair A, pair B, pair C, string l="", real r=40, int n=1, int nm = 0) { string sl = "$scriptstyle{" + l + "}$"; marker m = (nm > 0)?? marker(markinterval(stickframe(n=nm, 2mm), true))?: nomarker; markangle(Label(sl), radius=r, n=n, A, B, C, m); } langle(B, A, Z, "alpha" ); langle(X, B, A, "beta", n=2); langle(Y, A, X, "gamma", nm=1); langle(Y, B, X, "gamma", nm=1); langle(Z, A, Y, "delta", nm=2); langle(Z, B, Y, "delta", nm=2); langle(R, S, Y, "alpha+delta", r=23); langle(Y, Q, P, "beta+gamma", r=23); langle(R, T, P, "chi", r=15); [/asy]$ Triangles? $BQY$ ?and? $APY$ ?are both right-triangles, and share the angle? $gamma$ , therefore they are similar, and so the ratio? $PY?: YQ = AY?: YB$ . Now by?Thales' theorem?the angles? $2010 USAMO Problems真题及答案$ ?are all right-angles. Also,? $angle PYQ$ , being the fourth angle in a quadrilateral with 3 right-angles is again a right-angle. Therefore? $triangle PYQ sim triangle AYB$ ?and? $angle YQP = angle YBA = gamma + beta$ . Similarly,? $RY?: YS = AY?: YB$ , and so? $angle YRS = angle YAB = alpha + delta$ .

Now? $RY$ ?is perpendicular to? $AZ$ ?so the direction? $RY$ ?is? $alpha$ ?counterclockwise from the vertical, and since? $angle YRS = alpha + delta$ ?we see that? $SR$ ?is? $delta$ clockwise from the vertical. (Draw an actual vertical line segment if necessary.)

Similarly,? $QY$ ?is perpendicular to? $BX$ ?so the direction? $QY$ ?is? $beta$ ?clockwise from the vertical, and since? $angle YQP$ ?is? $gamma + beta$ ?we see that? $QY$ ?is? $gamma$ counterclockwise from the vertical.

Therefore the lines? $PQ$ ?and? $RS$ ?intersect at an angle? $chi = gamma + delta$ . Now by the central angle theorem? $2gamma = angle XOY$ ?and? $2delta = angle YOZ$ , and so? $2(gamma + delta) = angle XOZ$ , and we are done.

Note that? $RTQY$ ?is a quadrilateral whose angles sum to 360°; can you find a faster approach using this fact?

Footnote

We can prove a bit more. Namely, the extensions of the segments? $RS$ ?and? $PQ$ ?meet at a point on the diameter? $AB$ ?that is vertically below the point? $Y$ .

Since? $YS = AY sin(delta)$ ?and is inclined? $alpha$ ?counterclockwise from the vertical, the point? $S$ ?is? $AY sin(delta) sin(alpha)$ ?horizontally to the right of? $Y$ .

Now? $AS = AY cos(delta)$ , so? $S$ ?is? $AS sin(alpha) = AY cos(delta)sin(alpha)$ ?vertically above the diameter? $AB$ . Also, the segment? $SR$ ?is inclined? $delta$ clockwise from the vertical, so if we extend it down from? $S$ ?towards the diameter? $AB$ ?it will meet the diameter at a point which is? $AY cos(delta)sin(alpha)tan(delta) = AY sin(delta)sin(alpha)$ ?horizontally to the left of? $S$ . This places the intersection point of? $RS$ ?and? $AB$ ?vertically below? $Y$ .

Similarly, and by symmetry the intersection point of? $PQ$ ?and? $AB$ ?is directly below? $Y$ ?on? $AB$ , so the lines through? $PQ$ ?and? $RS$ ?meet at a point? $T$ on the diameter that is vertically below? $Y$ .

Footnote to the Footnote

The Footnote's claim is more easily proved as follows.

Note that because? $angle{QPY}$ ?and? $angle{YAB}$ ?are both complementary to? $beta + gamma$ , they must be equal. Now, let? $PQ$ ?intersect diameter? $AB$ ?at? $T'$ . Then? $PYT'A$ ?is cyclic and so? $angle{YT'A} = 180^circ - angle{APY} = 90^circ$ . Hence? $T'YSB$ ?is cyclic?as?well, and so we deduce that? $angle{YST'} = angle{YBT'} = 90^circ - alpha - delta = angle{YSR}.$ ?Hence? $S, R, T'$ ?are collinear and so? $T = T'$ . This proves the Footnote.

Footnote to the Footnote to the Footnote

The Footnote's claim can be proved even more easily as follows.

Drop an altitude from? $Y$ ?to? $AB$ ?at point? $T$ . Notice that? $P, Q, T$ ?are collinear because they form the Simson line of? $triangle AXB$ ?from? $Y$ . Also notice that? $P, Q, T$ ?are collinear because they form the Simson line of? $triangle AZB$ ?from? $Y$ . Since? $T$ ?is at the diameter? $AB$ , lines? $PQ$ ?and? $SR$ ?must intersect at the diameter.

Another footnote

There is another, more simpler solution using Simson lines. Can you find it?

Operation Diagram

Of course,?as?with any geometry problem, DRAW A HUGE DIAGRAM spanning at least one page. And label all your right angles, noting? $rectangles PXQY$ ?and? $YSZR$ . It looks like there are a couple of key angles we need to diagram. Let's take? $angle{ZAB} = alpha, angle{XBA} = beta, angle{YAZ} = angle{YBZ} = delta$ . From there? $angle{XOZ}=180^circ - angle{XOA}-angle{ZOB}=180-2(beta + alpha)$ .

Move on to the part about the intersection of? $PQ$ ?and? $RS$ . Call the intersection? $J$ . Note that by Simson Lines from point? $Y$ ?to? $triangle{ABX}$ ?and? $triangle{AZB}$ ,? $YJ$ ?is perpendicular to? $AB$ ?and? $J$ ?lies on? $AB$ . Immediately note that we are trying to show that? $angle{PJS} = 90 - beta - alpha$ .

It suffices to show that referencing quadrilateral? $QR~J$ , where? $~$ ?represents the intersection of? $XB, AZ$ , we have reflex? $angle{Q~R} + angle{BQJ} + angle{ARJ} = 270 + alpha + beta$ . Note that the reflex angle is? $180^circ + angle{A~X} = 180^circ + (90^circ - angle{XA*}) = 270^circ - ((90 - beta) - alpha) = 180 ^circ + alpha + beta$ , therefore it suffices to show that? $angle{BQJ} + angle{ARJ} = 90^circ$ . To make this proof more accessible, note that via (cyclic) rectangles? $PXQY$ ?and? $YSZR$ , it suffices to prove? $angle{YPJ} + angle{YSJ} = 90^circ$ .

Note? $angle{YPJ} = angle{YPQ} = angle{YXQ} = angle{YXB} = angle{YAB} = alpha + delta$ . Note? $angle{YSJ} = angle{YSR} = angle{YZR} = angle{YZA} = angle{YBA} = angle{YBX} + angle{XBA} = ((90^circ - alpha) - delta - beta) + beta = 90^circ - alpha - delta$ , which completes the proof.

Footnote to Operation Diagram

For reference/feasibility records: took expiLnCalc ~56 minutes (consecutively). During the problem expiLnCalc realized that the inclusion of? $delta$ was necessary when trying to show that? $angle{YSJ}+angle{YPJ}=90^circ$ . Don't be afraid to attempt several different strategies, and always be humble!

Solution 2

$[asy] currentpicture=new picture; size(12cm); pair O, A, B, X, Y, Z, P, Q, R, SS, T; O=(0, 0); A=(-1, 0); B=(1, 0); X=(Cos(144), Sin(144)); Y=(Cos(105), Sin(105)); Z=(Cos(27), Sin(27)); P=foot(Y, A, X); Q=foot(Y, B, X); R=foot(Y, A, Z); SS=foot(Y, B, Z); T=foot(Y, A, B); dot(O); dot(A); dot(B); dot(X); dot(Y); dot(Z); dot(P); dot(Q); dot(R); dot(SS); dot(T); draw(arc(O, 1, 0, 180)); draw(circumcircle(T, A, Y), dotted); draw(circumcircle(T, B, Y), dotted); draw(A -- B); draw(Z -- O -- X -- A -- Z -- B -- X); draw(A -- Y -- B); draw(P -- T -- SS); draw(P -- Y -- Q); draw(R -- Y -- SS); draw(X -- P); draw(Z -- SS); draw(Y -- T); draw(rightanglemark(Y, T, B, 1.25)); draw(rightanglemark(Y, P, A, 1.25)); draw(rightanglemark(Y, Q, X, 1.25)); draw(rightanglemark(Y, R, Z, 1.25)); draw(rightanglemark(Y, SS, B, 1.25)); draw(rightanglemark(A, X, B, 1.25)); draw(rightanglemark(A, Y, B, 1.25)); draw(rightanglemark(A, Z, B, 1.25)); label("$O$", O, S); label("$A$", A, SW); label("$B$", B, SE); label("$X$", X, (X-B)/length(X-B)); label("$Y$", Y, Y); label("$Z$", Z, (Z-A)/length(Z-A)); label("$P$", P, (P-T)/length(P-T)); label("$Q$", Q, SW); label("$R$", R, SE); label("$S$", SS, (SS-T)/length(SS-T)); label("$T$", T, S); [/asy]$

Let? $T$ ?be the projection of? $Y$ ?onto? $overline{AB}$ . Notice that? $T$ ?lies on the Simson Line? $overline{PQ}$ ?from? $Y$ ?to? $triangle AXB$ , and the Simson Line? $overline{RS}$ ?from? $Y$ ?to? $triangle AZB$ . Hence,? $T=overline{PQ}capoverline{RS}$ , so it suffices to show that? $angle PTS=tfrac{1}{2}angle XOZ$ .

Since? $TAPY$ ?and? $TBSY$ ?are cyclic quadrilaterals, $[angle PTS=angle PTY+angle YTS=angle PAY+angle YBS=angle XAY+angle YBZ=frac{1}{2}angle XOY+frac{1}{2}angle YOZ=frac{1}{2}angle XOZ,]$ as?required.? $square$

Solution by TheUltimate123.

Problem 2

Solution 1

We adopt the usual convention that? $binom{i}{j} = 0$ ?unless? $0 le j le i$ . With this, the binomial coefficients are defined for all integers via the recursion:

$[binom{0}{0} = 1, quad binom{n}{k} = binom{n-1}{k} + binom{n-1}{k-1}]$ It is clear that the circle is oriented and all the students are facing in same direction (clockwise or counterclockwise). We'll call this direction?forward.

In any switch consider the taller student to have moved?forward?and the shorter student to have remained?stationary. No backward motion is allowed. With this definition of forward motion, the first two students with heights? $h_1$ ?and? $h_2$ ?are always stationary, while other students potentially move past them.

For? $k > 2$ , the student with height? $h_k$ ?can never switch places with the student with height? $h_{k-1}$ , and the former can make at most? $k-2$ ?more forward moves than the latter (when all the students of heights? $h_1, ldots h_{k-2}$ ?are between? $h_k$ ?and? $h_{k-1}$ ?in the forward direction).

Therefore, if the? $(k-1)^{mathrm{st}}$ ?student can make? $s_{k-1}$ ?forward steps, the? $k^{mathrm{th}}$ ?student can make at most? $s_{k-1} + k - 2$ ?steps. With? $s_1 = s_2 = 0$ and? $s_3 = 0 + (3-2) = 1$ , and a constant second difference of? $1$ , we quickly see that? $s_k = binom{k-1}{2}$ .

With? $n$ ?students in all, the total number of steps is therefore at most? $sum_{i=3}^{n}binom{i-1}{2} = binom{n}{3}$ . The sum is a telescoping sum since:? $binom{n}{3} - binom{n-1}{3} = binom{n-1}{2}.$

Solution 2

WLOG, let? $h_k=k$ . Now, we find the end arrangement with the most switches possible. We claim that the arrangement will be? $n,n-1,n-2,dots ,1$ , where the left to right direction is the "backwards" direction. To prove this makes the most switches, we show that there is always at least one more switch that can be done for any other arrangement. This is elementary to show. There will always be one height? $x$ ?such that the number to its right is? $2$ ?less than? $x$ , unless every number has? $x-1$ ?to the right of? $x$ ?(other than? $2$ ?and? $1$ ). The exception occurs at our claim, so our claim is proven. Now we want to find the maximum ways we can "undo" our arrangement. But undoing a switch is just doing a switch from our arrangement in the opposite direction. So, the start arrangement with the most possible switches is the reverse of the end arrangement or? $1,2,3,dots ,n$ . We want to find how many switches must be done to get from the start arrangement to the end arrangement. We start by switching? $n$ ?around until it cannot be switched anymore. We find that we can switch? $n$ ? $n-2$ ?times. When we are switching (or, in other words, moving to the right) the number? $k$ , we can switch it? $k-2$ ?times before it is to the left of? $k-1$ . But then we can also switch each of? $k+1,k+2,dots ,n$ ?(in that order)? $k-2$ ?times before they get stopped again. Let? $x=n-k+2$ . Then, the sum of the switches is? $sumlimits_{x=2}^{n-1} (n-x)(x-1)=sumlimits_{x=1}^{n} (n-x)(x-1)$ .

Rearranging and summing, we get $[sumlimits_{x=1}^{n} x(n+1)-sumlimits_{x=1}^{n} n -sumlimits_{x=1}^{n} x^2=frac{n(n+1)^2}2-n^2-frac{n(n+1)(2n+1)}6=frac{3n(n^2+1)}6-frac{n(n+1)(2n+1)}6=frac{n(n^2-3n+2)}6=frac{n(n-1)(n-2)}{3!}=binom{n}{3}]$

Problem 3

Solution

The largest possible value is $[prod_{i=1}^{1005}(4i-1) = 3times 7 times ldots times 4019.]$

Proof

No larger value is possible, since for each consecutive pair of elements:? $(a_{2i-1},a_{2i}), 1le i le 1005$ , the product is at most? $(2i-1) + 2i = 4i - 1$ , and so the product of all the pairs is at most:

$[prod_{i=1}^{1005}(4i-1).]$ If we can demonstrate a sequence in which for all? $1 le i le 1005$ ?the product? $a_{2i-1}a_{2i} = 4i-1$ , and all the inequalities are satisfied, the above upper bound will be achieved and the proof complete.

We will construct sequences of an arbitrarily large even length? $2n ge 4$ , in which:

$[begin{cases} a_ia_j = i+j = 2i+1 & j=i+1, \ a_ia_j = i+j = 2n-2 & j = i+2 = 2n, \ a_ia_j < i+j & i ne 2n-2, mbox{ and } i < j-1. end{cases}]$ Given? $a_1$ , from the equations? $a_ia_{i+1} = 2i+1,; 1le ile 2n-1$ , we obtain the whole sequence recursively:? $a_1 = a_1,; a_2 = 3/a_1,; a_3 = 5/a_2 = 5a_1/3,; a_4 = 7/a_3 = (3cdot 7)/(5a_1) ldots.$ ?And?as?a result:

$[a_{i+2} = a_i cdot frac{2i+3}{2i+1}quad 1 le i le 2n-2.]$ The same equations? $a_ia_{i+1} = 2i+1$ ?can be used to compute the whole sequence from any other known term.

We will often need to compare fractions in which the numerator and denominator are both positive, with fractions in which a positive term is added to both. Suppose? $p, q, r$ ?are three positive real numbers, then:

$begin{align*} p &> q implies & frac{p+r}{q+r} &< frac{p}{q} \ p &< q implies & frac{p+r}{q+r} &> frac{p}{q} \ & mbox{and always} & frac{p+r}{q} &> frac{p}{q} end{align*}$ Returning to the problem in hand, for? $i < j$ ,? $a_ia_j le i+j implies a_ia_{j+2} < i+j+2$ . If it were otherwise, we would have for some? $i < j$ :

$[frac{a_{j+2}}{a_j} ge frac{i+j+2}{i+j} > frac{j+j+2}{j+j} = frac{2j+2}{2j} > frac{2j+3}{2j+1} = frac{a_{j+2}}{a_j},]$ so our assumption is impossible.

Therefore, we need only verify inequalities with an index difference of? $1$ ?or? $2$ ,?as?these imply the rest.

Now, when the indices differ by? $1$ ?we have ensured equality (and hence the desired inequalities) by construction. So, we only need to prove the inequalities for successive even index and successive odd index pairs, i.e. for every index? $i > 2$ , prove? $a_{i-2}a_i le 2i-2$ .

We now compare? $a_ia_{i+2}/(2i+2)$ ?with? $a_{i+2}a_{i+4}/(2i+6)$ . By our recurrence relations:

$begin{align*} frac{a_{i+2}a_{i+4}}{2i+6} &= frac{a_ia_{i+2}}{2i+2} cdot frac{2i+2}{2i+6} cdot frac{a_{i+4}}{a_{i+2}}cdot frac{a_{i+2}}{a_i} \ &= frac{a_ia_{i+2}}{2i+2}cdot frac{i+1}{i+3}cdot frac{2i+7}{2i+5}cdot frac{2i+3}{2i+1} \ &= frac{a_ia_{i+2}}{2i+2}cdot frac{(i+1)(2i+7)(2i+3)}{(i+3)(2i+5)(2i+1)} \ &= frac{a_ia_{i+2}}{2i+2}cdot frac{4i^3+24i^2+41i+21}{4i^3+24i^2+41i+15} \ &= frac{a_ia_{i+2}}{2i+2}cdot left(1+frac{6}{4i^3+24i^2+41i+15}right) \ &> frac{a_ia_{i+2}}{2i+2}. end{align*}$ So, for both odd and even index pairs, the strict inequality? $a_ia_{i+2} < 2i+2$ ?follows from? $a_{i+2}a_{i+4} le 2i+6$ ?and we need only prove the inequalities? $a_{2n-3}a_{2n-1} le 4n-4$ ?and? $a_{2n-2}a_{2n} le 4n-2$ , the second of which holds (as?an equality) by construction, so only the first remains.

We have not yet used the equation? $a_{2n-2}a_{2n} = 4n-2$ , with this we can solve for the last three terms (or equivalently their squares) and thus compute the whole sequence. From the equations:

$begin{align*} a_{2n-1}a_{2n} &= 4n-1 \ a_{2n-2}a_{2n} &= 4n-2 \ a_{2n-2}a_{2n-1} &= 4n-3 end{align*}$ multiplying any two and dividing by the third, we get:

$begin{align*} a_{2n}^2 &= frac{(4n-2)(4n-1)}{4n-3} \ a_{2n-1}^2 &= frac{(4n-3)(4n-1)}{4n-2} \ a_{2n-2}^2 &= frac{(4n-3)(4n-2)}{4n-1} end{align*}$ from which,

$[a_{2n-3}^2 = frac{(4n-5)^2}{a_{2n-2}^2} = frac{(4n-5)^2(4n-1)}{(4n-3)(4n-2)}]$ With the squares of the last four terms in hand, we can now verify the only non-redundant inequality:

$begin{align*} a_{2n-3}^2a_{2n-1}^2 &= frac{(4n-5)^2}{a_{2n-2}^2}a_{2n-1}^2 \ &= left(frac{(4n-5)(4n-1)}{4n-2}right)^2 \ &= left(frac{16n^2 -24n + 5}{4n-2}right)^2 \ &< left(frac{16n^2 -24n + 8}{4n-2}right)^2 \ &= (4n-4)^2. end{align*}$ The inequality above follows because the numerator and denominator are both positive for? $n > 1$ .

This completes the construction and the proof of all the inequalities, which miraculously reduced to just one inequality for the last pair of odd indices.

Additional observations

If we choose a different first term, say? $a_1' = Mcdot a_1$ , the sequence? $a_i'$ ?will have the form:

$begin{align*} a_{2i-1}' &= Ma_{2i-1} \ a_{2i}' &= frac{a_{2i}}{M} end{align*}$ the same holds if we have a longer sequence, at every index of the shorter sequence, the longer sequence will be a constant multiple (for all the odd terms) or dividend (for all the even terms) of the corresponding term of shorter sequence.

We observe that our solution is not unique, indeed for any? $k>0$ , the same construction with? $2n+2k$ ?terms, truncated to just the first? $2n$ terms, yields a sequence? $a'_i$ ?which also satisfies all the required conditions, but in this case? $a'_{2n-2}a'{2n} < 4n-2$ .

We could have constructed this alternative solution directly, by replacing the right hand side in the equation? $a_{2n-2}a_{2n} = 4n-2$ ?with any smaller value for which we still get? $a_{2n-3}a_{2n-1} le 4n-4$ .

In the modified construction, for some constant? $M > 1$ , we have:

$begin{align*} a_{2n}^2 &= frac{1}{M}cdot frac{(4n-2)(4n-1)}{4n-3} \ a_{2n-1}^2 &= Mcdot frac{(4n-3)(4n-1)}{4n-2} \ a_{2n-2}^2 &= frac{1}{M}cdot frac{(4n-3)(4n-2)}{4n-1} end{align*}$ and so:

$begin{align*} a_{2n-3}^2a_{2n-1}^2 &= frac{(4n-5)^2}{a_{2n-2}^2}a_{2n-1}^2 \ &= M^2left(frac{(4n-5)(4n-1)}{4n-2}right)^2 \ &= M^2left(frac{16n^2 -24n + 5}{4n-2}right)^2 \ &= M^2left(frac{16n^2 -24n + 5}{16n^2 -24n + 8}right)^2 cdot left(frac{16n^2 -24n + 8}{4n-2}right)^2 \ &= M^2left(frac{16n^2 -24n + 5}{16n^2 -24n + 8}right)^2 cdot (4n-4)^2. end{align*}$ which satisfies the required inequality provided:

$begin{align*} M^2 &le frac{16n^2 -24n + 8}{16n^2 -24n + 5} \ &= frac{(4n-4)(4n-2)}{(4n-5)(4n-1)} = M_{mathrm{max}}^2. end{align*}$ The ratio? $M_{mathrm{max}}$ , between the largest and smallest possible value of? $a_{2n-3}$ ?is in fact the ratio between the largest and smallest values of? $a_1$ ?that yield a sequence that meets the conditions for at least? $2n$ ?terms.

In the? $n=2$ ?case, the equation for? $a_{2n-3}$ ?gives:? $a_1^2 = frac{21}{10}$ . We will next consider what happens to? $a_1^2$ , and the sequence of squares in general,?as? $n$ ?increases.

Let? $A_{n,2i-1}, A_{n,2i}$ ?denote the? $i^{mathrm{th}}$ ?odd and even terms, respectively, of the unique sequence which satisfies our original equations and has? $2n$ terms in total. Let? $A_{n+1,2i-1}, A_{n+1,2i}$ ?be the odd and even terms of the solution with? $2n+2$ ?terms. We already noted that there must exist a constant? $M_n$ ?(that depends on? $n$ , but not on? $i$ ), such that:

$[begin{cases} A_{n+1,2i-1} = M_ncdot A_{n,2i-1},& 1 le i le n \ A_{n+1,2i} = dfrac{A_{n,2i}}{M_n},& 1 le i le n end{cases}]$ This constant is found explicitly by comparing the squares of the last term? $A_{n,2n}$ ?of the solution of length? $2n$ ?with the square of the third last term? $A_{n+1,2n}$ ?of the solution of length? $2n+2$ :

$begin{align*} (1/M_n)^2 &= frac{A_{n+1,2n}^2}{A_{n,2n}^2} \ &= frac{(4n+1)(4n+2)}{4n+3} cdot frac{4n-3}{(4n-2)(4n-1)} \ &= frac{32n^3 - 14n - 3}{32n^3 - 14n + 3} end{align*}$ Clearly? $M_n > 1$ ?for all positive? $n$ , and so for fixed? $i$ , the odd index terms? $A_{n,2i-1}$ ?strictly increase with? $n$ , while the even index terms? $A_{n,2i}$ decrease with? $n$ .

Therefore, for? $n ge 2$ ,

$[A_{n,1}^2 = frac{21}{10} prod_{k=2}^{n-1} M_k^2 = frac{21}{10} cdot prod_{k=2}^{n-1} frac{(k+frac{3}{4})(k-frac{1}{2})(k-frac{1}{4})} {(k-frac{3}{4})(k+frac{1}{2})(k+frac{1}{4})}]$ The product converges to a finite value even if taken infinitely far, and we can conclude (by a simple continuity argument) that there is a unique infinite positive sequence? $A_omega$ , in which? $A_{omega,i}A_{omega,i+1} = 2i+1$ , that satisfies all the inequalities? $A_{omega,i}A_{omega,j} < i+j,; i le j - 2$ . The square of the first term of the infinite sequence is:

$begin{align*} A_{omega,1}^2 &= frac{21}{10} cdot lim_{n to infty} prod_{k=2}^{n-1} frac{(k+frac{3}{4})(k-frac{1}{2})(k-frac{1}{4})} {(k-frac{3}{4})(k+frac{1}{2})(k+frac{1}{4})} \ &= frac{21}{10} cdot lim_{n to infty} left( frac{Gamma(frac{5}{4}) Gamma(frac{5}{2}) Gamma(frac{9}{4})} {Gamma(frac{11}{4}) Gamma(frac{3}{2}) Gamma(frac{7}{4})}cdot frac{Gamma(n+frac{3}{4})Gamma(n-frac{1}{2})Gamma(n-frac{1}{4})} {Gamma(n-frac{3}{4})Gamma(n+frac{1}{2})Gamma(n+frac{1}{4})} right) \ &= frac{1}{4} cdot frac{Gamma^2(frac{1}{4})}{Gamma^2(frac{3}{4})} cdot lim_{n to infty} frac{Gamma(n+frac{3}{4})Gamma(n-frac{1}{2})Gamma(n-frac{1}{4})} {Gamma(n-frac{3}{4})Gamma(n+frac{1}{2})Gamma(n+frac{1}{4})} \ &= frac{1}{4} cdot frac{Gamma^2(frac{1}{4})}{Gamma^2(frac{3}{4})} cdot 1 quad mbox{(Stirling's approximation)}\ &= frac{Gamma^4(frac{1}{4})}{8pi^2} = frac{pi}{mathrm{AGM}^2(sqrt{2}, 1)} approx 2.1884396152264766ldots end{align*}$ In summary, if we set? $a_1 = frac{sqrt{pi}}{mathrm{AGM}(sqrt{2}, 1)}$ , and then recursively set? $a_{i+1} = (2i + 1)/a_i$ , we get an infinite sequence that, for all? $n ge 1$ , yields the maximum possible product? $a_1a_2cdots a_{2n}$ , subject to the conditions? $a_ia_j le i+j,; 1 le i < j le 2n$ .

Problem 4

Solution 1

We know that angle? $BIC = 135^{circ}$ ,?as?the other two angles in triangle? $BIC$ ?add to? $45^{circ}$ . Assume that only? $AB, AC, BI$ , and? $CI$ ?are integers. Using the?Law of Cosines?on triangle BIC,

$[asy] import olympiad; // Scale unitsize(1inch); // Shape real h = 1.75; real w = 2.5; // Points void ldot(pair p, string l, pair dir=p) { dot(p); label(l, p, unit(dir)); } pair A = origin; ldot(A, "$A$", plain.SW); pair B = w * plain.E; ldot(B, "$B$", plain.SE); pair C = h * plain.N; ldot(C, "$C$", plain.NW); pair D = extension(B, bisectorpoint(C, B, A), A, C); ldot(D, "$D$", D-B); pair E = extension(C, bisectorpoint(A, C, B), A, B); ldot(E, "$E$", E-C); pair I = extension(B, D, C, E); ldot(I, "$I$", A-I); // Segments draw(A--B); draw(B--C); draw(C--A); draw(C--E); draw(B--D); // Angles import markers; draw(rightanglemark(B, A, C, 4)); markangle(Label("$scriptstyle{frac{theta}{2}}$"), radius=40, I, B, E); markangle(Label("$scriptstyle{frac{theta}{2}}$"), radius=40, C, B, I); markangle(Label("$scriptstyle{frac{pi}{4} - frac{theta}{2}}$"), radius=40, I, C, B); markangle(Label("$scriptstyle{frac{pi}{4} - frac{theta}{2}}$"), radius=40, D, C, I); markangle(Label("$scriptstyle{frac{3pi}{4}}$"), radius=10, B, I, C); [/asy]$ $BC^2 = BI^2 + CI^2 - 2BIcdot CI cdot cos 135^{circ}$ . Observing that? $BC^2 = AB^2 + AC^2$ ?is an integer and that? $cos 135^{circ} = -frac{sqrt{2}}{2},$ ?we have

$[BC^2 - BI^2 - CI^2 = BIcdot CIcdot sqrt{2}]$ and therefore,

$[sqrt{2} = frac{BC^2 - BI^2 - CI^2}{BIcdot CI}]$ The LHS ( $sqrt{2}$ ) is irrational, while the RHS is the quotient of the division of two integers and thus is rational. Clearly, there is a contradiction. Therefore, it is impossible for? $AB, AC, BI$ , and? $CI$ ?to all be integers, which invalidates the original claim that all six lengths are integers, and we are done.

Solution 2

The result can be also proved without direct appeal to trigonometry, via just the angle bisector theorem and the structure of Pythagorean triples. (This is a lot more work).

A triangle in which all the required lengths are integers exists if and only if there exists a triangle in which? $AB$ ?and? $AC$ ?are relatively-prime integers and the lengths of the segments? $BI, ID, CI, IE$ ?are all rational (we divide all the lengths by the? $gcd(AB, AC)$ ?or conversely multiply all the lengths by the least common multiple of the denominators of the rational lengths).

Suppose there exists a triangle in which the lengths? $AB$ ?and? $AC$ ?are relatively-prime integers and the lengths? $IB, ID, CI, IE$ ?are all rational.

Since? $CE$ ?is the bisector of? $angle ACB$ , by the angle bisector theorem, the ratio? $IB?: ID = CB?: CD$ , and since? $BD$ ?is the bisector of? $angle ABC$ ,? $CB?: CD = (AB + BC)?: AC$ . Therefore,? $IB?: ID = (AB + BC)?: AC$ . Now? $IB?: ID$ ?is by assumption rational, so? $(AB + BC)?: AC$ ?is rational, but? $AB$ ?and? $AC$ ?are assumed integers so? $BC?: AC$ ?must also be rational. Since? $BC$ ?is the hypotenuse of a right-triangle, its length is the square root of an integer, and thus either an integer or irrational, so? $BC$ ?must be an integer.

With? $AB$ ?and? $AC$ ?relatively-prime, we conclude that the side lengths of? $triangle ABC$ ?must be a Pythagorean triple:? $(2pq, p^2 - q^2, p^2 + q^2)$ , with? $p > q$ ?relatively-prime positive integers and? $p+q$ ?odd.

Without loss of generality,? $AC = 2pq, AB = p^2 - q^2, BC = p^2+q^2$ . By the angle bisector theorem,

$begin{align*} AE &= dfrac{AB cdot AC}{AC + CB} = dfrac{2pq(p^2-q^2)}{p^2 + q^2 + 2pq} = dfrac{2pq(p-q)}{p+q} end{align*}$ Since? $triangle CAE$ ?is a right-triangle, we have:

$begin{align*} CE^2 &= AC^2 + AE^2 = 4p^2q^2 + left(dfrac{2pq(p-q)}{p+q}right)^2 = 4p^2q^2left[1 + left(dfrac{p-q}{p+q}right)^2right] \ &= frac{4p^2q^2}{(p+q)^2}left[(p+q)^2 + (p-q)^2right] = frac{4p^2q^2}{(p+q)^2}(2p^2 + 2q^2) end{align*}$ and so? $CE$ ?is rational if and only if? $2p^2 + 2q^2$ ?is a perfect square.

Also by the angle bisector theorem,

$begin{align*} AD &= dfrac{AB cdot AC}{AB + BC} = dfrac{2pq(p^2-q^2)}{p^2 + q^2 + p^2 - q^2} = dfrac{q(p^2-q^2)}{p} end{align*}$ and therefore, since? $triangle DAB$ ?is a right-triangle, we have:

$begin{align*} BD^2 &= AB^2 + AD^2 = (p^2-q^2)^2 + left(dfrac{q(p^2-q^2)}{p}right)^2 \ &= (p^2-q^2)^2left[1 + frac{q^2}{p^2}right] = frac{(p^2-q^2)^2}{p^2}(p^2 + q^2) end{align*}$ and so? $BD$ ?is rational if and only if? $p^2 + q^2$ ?is a perfect square.

Combining the conditions on? $CE$ ?and? $BD$ , we see that? $2p^2+2q^2$ ?and? $p^2+q^2$ ?must both be perfect squares. If it were so, their ratio, which is? $2$ , would be the square of a rational number, but? $sqrt{2}$ ?is irrational, and so the assumed triangle cannot exist.

Problem 5

Solution

Since? $p$ ?is an odd prime,? $p = 2r + 1$ , for a suitable positive integer? $r$ , and consequently? $q = 3r - 1$ .

The partial-fraction decomposition of the general term of? $S_q$ ?is:

$begin{align*} frac{1}{(3k-1)3k(3k+1)} &= frac{1}{2}left(frac{1}{3k-1} - frac{2}{3k} + frac{1}{3k+1}right) \ &= frac{1}{2}left(frac{1}{3k-1} + frac{1}{3k} - frac{1}{k} + frac{1}{3k+1}right) \ &= frac{1}{2}left[left(frac{1}{3k-1} + frac{1}{3k} + frac{1}{3k+1}right) - frac{1}{k}right], end{align*}$ therefore

$begin{align*} frac{1}{p} - 2S_q &= frac{1}{2r+1} - left(sum_{k=2}^{3r+1}frac{1}{k} - sum_{k=1}^{r} frac{1}{k}right) \ &= frac{1}{2r+1} - left[left(sum_{k=r+1}^{3r+1}frac{1}{k}right)- 1right] \ &= 1 - left(sum_{k=r+1}^{2r}frac{1}{k} + sum_{k=2r+2}^{3r+1}frac{1}{k}right) \ &= 1 - sum_{k=1}^{r}left(frac{1}{(2r+1) - k} + frac{1}{(2r+1) + k}right) \ &= 1 - sum_{k=1}^{r}frac{2p}{(p - k)(p + k)} \ &= 1 - frac{a} = frac{b - a} end{align*}$ with? $a$ ?and? $b$ ?positive relatively-prime integers.

Since? $r < p$ ?and? $p$ ?is a prime, in the final sum all the denominators are relatively prime to? $p$ , but all the numerators are divisible by? $p$ , and therefore the numerator? $a$ ?of the reduced fraction? $frac{a}$ ?will be divisible by? $p$ . Since the sought difference? $m - n = (b-a) - b = -a$ , we conclude that? $p$ ?divides? $m-n$ ?as?required.